Articles Adverbial Claus

CANCER

Cancer (medical term: malignant neoplasm) is a class of diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled growth, invasion that intrudes upon and destroys adjacent tissues, and sometimes metastasis, or spreading to other locations in the body via lymph or blood. These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which do not invade or metastasize.
Researchers divide the causes of cancer into two groups: those with an environmental cause and those with a hereditary genetic cause. Cancer is primarily an environmental disease, though genetics influence the risk of some cancers. Common environmental factors leading to cancer include: tobacco, diet and obesity, infections, radiation, lack of physical activity, and environmental pollutants. These environmental factors cause or enhance abnormalities in the genetic material of cells. Cell reproduction is an extremely complex process that is normally tightly regulated by several classes of genes, including oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Hereditary or acquired abnormalities in these regulatory genes can lead to the development of cancer. A small percentage of cancers, approximately five to ten percent, are entirely hereditary.
The presence of cancer can be suspected on the basis of symptoms, or findings on radiology. Definitive diagnosis of cancer, however, requires the microscopic examination of a biopsy specimen. Most cancers can be treated. Possible treatments include chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery. The prognosis is influenced by the type of cancer and the extent of disease. While cancer can affect people of all ages, and a few types of cancer are more common in children, the overall risk of developing cancer increases with age. In 2007 cancer caused about 13% of all human deaths worldwide (7.9 million). Rates are rising as more people live to an old age and lifestyles change in the developing world.
Classification
Further information: List of cancer types and List of oncology-related terms
Cancers are classified by the type of cell that the tumor resembles and is therefore presumed to be the origin of the tumor. These types include:
• Carcinoma: Cancer derived from epithelial cells. This group includes many of the most common cancers, including those of the breast, prostate, lung and colon.
• Sarcoma: Cancer derived from connective tissue, or mesenchymal cells.
• Lymphoma and leukemia: Cancer derived from hematopoietic (blood-forming) cells
• Germ cell tumor: Cancer derived from pluripotent cells. In adults these are most often found in the testicle and ovary, but are more common in babies and young children.
• Blastoma: Cancer derived from immature "precursor" or embryonic tissue. These are also commonest in children.
Cancers are usually named using -carcinoma, -sarcoma or -blastoma as a suffix, with the Latin or Greek word for the organ or tissue of origin as the root. For example, a cancer of the liver is called hepatocarcinoma; a cancer of fat cells is called a liposarcoma. For some common cancers, the English organ name is used. For example, the most common type of breast cancer is called ductal carcinoma of the breast. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the appearance of the cancer under the microscope, which suggests that it has originated in the milk ducts.
Benign tumors (which are not cancers) are named using -oma as a suffix with the organ name as the root. For example, a benign tumor of smooth muscle cells is called a leiomyoma (the common name of this frequently occurring benign tumor in the uterus is fibroid). Confusingly, some types of cancer also use the -oma suffix, examples including melanoma and seminoma.
Signs and symptoms


Symptoms of cancer metastasis depend on the location of the tumor.
Cancer symptoms can be divided into three groups:
• Local symptoms: are restricted to the site of the primary cancer. They can include lumps or swelling (tumor), hemorrhage (bleeding from the skin, mouth or anus), ulceration and pain. Although local pain commonly occurs in advanced cancer, the initial swelling is often painless.
• Metastatic symptoms: are due to the spread of cancer to other locations in the body. They can include enlarged lymph nodes (which can be felt or sometimes seen under the skin), hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) or splenomegaly (enlarged spleen) which can be felt in the abdomen, pain or fracture of affected bones, and neurological symptoms.
• Systemic symptoms: occur due to distant effects of the cancer that are not related to direct or metastatic spread. Some of these effects can include weight loss (poor appetite and cachexia), fatigue, excessive sweating (especially night sweats), anemia (low blood count) and other specific conditions termed paraneoplastic phenomena. These may be mediated by immunological or hormonal signals from the cancer cells.
None of these are diagnostic, as many of these symptoms commonly occur in patients who do not have cancer.
Causes:
Cancers are primarily an environmental disease with 90-95% of cases attributed to environmental factors and 5-10% due to genetics. Environmental, as used by cancer researchers, means any cause that is not genetic. Common environmental factors that contribute to cancer death include: tobacco (25-30%), diet and obesity (30-35%), infections (15-20%), radiation (both ionizing and non ionizing, up to 10%), stress, lack of physical activity, and environmental pollutants.

Diet and exercise
Diet, physical inactivity, and obesity are related to approximately 30-35% of cancer cases. In the United States excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 14-20% of all cancer death. Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on immune system and endocrine system.
Diets that are low in vegetables, fruits and whole grains, and high in processed or red meats are linked with a number of cancers. A high salt diet is linked to gastric cancer, aflatoxin B1, a frequent food contaminate, with liver cancer, and Betel nut chewing with oral cancer. This may partly explain differences in cancer incidence in different countries for example gastric cancer is more common in Japan with its high salt diet and colon cancer is more common in the United States. Immigrants develop the risk of their new country, often within one generation, suggesting a substantial link between diet and cancer.
Infection
Worldwide approximately 18% of cancers are related to infectious diseases. This proportion varies in different regions of the world from a high of 25% in Africa to less than 10% in the developed world. Viruses are usual infectious agents that cause cancer but bacteria and parasites may also have an effect.
A virus that can cause cancer is called an oncovirus. These include human papillomavirus (cervical carcinoma), Epstein-Barr virus (B-cell lymphoproliferative disease and nasopharyngeal carcinoma), Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (Kaposi's Sarcoma and primary effusion lymphomas), hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses (hepatocellular carcinoma), and Human T-cell leukemia virus-1 (T-cell leukemias). Bacterial infection may also increase the risk of cancer, as seen in Helicobacter pylori-induced gastric carcinoma. Parasitic infections strongly associated with cancer include Schistosoma haematobium (squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder) and the liver flukes, Opisthorchis viverrini and Clonorchis sinensis (cholangiocarcinoma).
Radiation
Up to 10% of cancers are related to radiation exposure either ionizing or nonionizing. Sources of ionizing radiation, include medical imaging, and radon gas. Radiation can cause cancer in most parts of the body, in all animals, and at any age, although radiation-induced solid tumors usually take 10–15 years, and up to 40 years, to become clinically manifest, and radiation-induced leukemias typically require 2–10 years to appear. Some people, such as those with nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome or retinoblastoma, are more susceptible than average to developing cancer from radiation exposure. Children and adolescents are twice as likely to develop radiation-induced leukemia as adults; radiation exposure before birth has ten times the effect. Ionizing radiation is not a particularly strong mutagen. Residential exposure to radon gas, for example, has similar cancer risks as passive smoking. Low-dose exposures, such as living near a nuclear power plant, are generally believed to have no or very little effect on cancer development. Radiation is a more potent source of cancer when it is combined with other cancer-causing agents, such as radon gas exposure plus smoking tobacco.
Unlike chemical or physical triggers for cancer, ionizing radiation hits molecules within cells randomly. If it happens to strike a chromosome, it can break the chromosome, result in an abnormal number of chromosomes, inactivate one or more genes in the part of the chromosome that it hit, delete parts of the DNA sequence, cause chromosome translocations, or cause other types of chromosome abnormalities. Major damage normally results in the cell dying, but smaller damage may leave a stable, partly functional cell that may be capable of proliferating and developing into cancer, especially if tumor suppressor genes were damaged by the radiation. Three independent stages appear to be involved in the creation of cancer with ionizing radiation: morphological changes to the cell, acquiring cellular immortality (losing normal, life-limiting cell regulatory processes), and adaptations that favor formation of a tumor. Even if the radiation particle does not strike the DNA directly, it triggers responses from cells that indirectly increase the likelihood of mutations.
Medical use of ionizing radiation is a growing source of radiation-induced cancers. Ionizing radiation may be used to treat other cancers, but this may, in some cases, induce a second form of cancer. It is also used in some kinds of medical imaging. One report estimates that approximately 29,000 future cancers could be related to the approximately 70 million CT scans performed in the US in 2007. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to CTs performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5-2% with 2007 rates of CT usage.

Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can lead to melanoma and other skin malignancies. Clear evidence establishes ultraviolet radiation, especially the medium wave UVB, as the cause of most non-melanoma skin cancers, which are the most common forms of cancer in the world.
Non-ionizing radio frequency radiation from mobile phones, electric power transmission, and other similar sources has also been proposed as a cause of cancer, but there is currently little established evidence of such a link.

ARTICLES ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

Writing Tasks

DIET FOR diabetes (DIABETES MELLITUS)

Diabetes mellitus is also known as diabetes. This is indeed something to do with the state of the urine of patients many of which contain sugar as a result of the process can not use sugar in the body normally.
The disease is caused by damage to the pancreas gland or the pancreas, to perform its functions fairly, especially in dividing insulin to process sugar in the body properly.
The symptoms observed in this disease are:
a. Stout urine (Polyuri)
b. Many drink (Polyphagi)
c. A lot of sweat (Polydipshi)
d. Itching - itching
e. And blood sugar levels often fluctuate
Treatment for this disease other than drug or injection form of diabetes millitus, then the food arrangements should be adjusted to the drug. In general, when this is done, then the amount of food in each meal time should be as much.

a. Feeding in patients with diabetes mellitus, in general, are as follows:
1) Food and Sports

In obese patients, the pancreas usually produces the hormone insulin in sufficient quantities. Because the amount of food more than the body needs, then this excess is a great burden for the pancreas so as if the result of insulin imbalance. To adjust the amount of insulin produced by the pancreas that this ability is still good, obese patients given low-calorie foods and at the same time result in weight gain to normal. Exercise can also help this effort.

2) Food and Giving tablets diabetes mellitus
In patients with medium weight and pancreas produce the hormone insulin in amounts less, it can be given tablets as a treatment. These drugs aim to stimulate the pancreas to produce more insulin.
3) Food and insulin injections

Usually given to adolescent patients. Pancreas can not produce insulin at all, so insulin must be injected from the outside. Makannan in this group high in calories because they still have to grow or to raise the weight until they reach a normal weight.




b. The purpose of Diet in Diabetes Mellitus

1. Kamapuan adjust the body to manage the food.
2. Lowering blood sugar levels to achieve the normal standard.
3. Maintaining the body in order to perform their daily work like the normal person

c. Terms Diet for Patients with Diabetes Mellitus

1) Calories average 30-35 calories per kg body weight.
2) The number of calories provided slightly below normal and as far as possible cultivated and maintained normal weight.
3) If patients do not get diabetes medicine, the provision of food can be given by the standards of food for patients with diabetes mellitus. When you use certain drugs, the amount of carbohydrate provided for each meal and feeding frequency will be determined by your doctor. Usually given the same food every meal with small portions. Carbohydrate composition of the fifth, two fifths, two-fifths of part, or a quarter of six, two by six, and a quarter of six sections.
4) The protein is 1 gram per kg body weight.
5) Fat between 30-35% of total calories a day. Should be selected long-chain fatty unsaturated to avoid possible complications with heart disease.
6) Vitamins and minerals sufficient

In the study various disease states and feeding levels in diabetic patients the standard method is developed diabetes millitus new food. In the new standard diabetes diet and composition of food adapted to the eating habits of the nation of Indonesia.
There is a food composition for diabetes millitus namely:
a. Consist of 60-70% carbohydrate
b. 15-25% Protein
c. 20-25% Fat!
In the preparation of food for patients with diabetes millitus this, food exchange list will be helpful and useful in preparing a varied menu. Use of this list is the same as in the use of exchange lists to compile a balanced diet.
Note:
Diets 1 to 3: Given in patients who are too fat
Diet 4 to 5: Given to patients who have normal weight
Diets 6 to 8: Given the patient's thin, adolescent diabetes or diabetes with complications.
Kind of Diet:
1. Diet 1: Calories = 1100, = 50 grams of protein, fat = 30 grams, carbohydrate grams = 160
2. Diet 2: Calories = 1300, = 55 grams of protein, fat = 35 grams, carbohydrate grams: 195
3. Diet 3: Calories = 1500, = 60 grams of protein, fat gram = 40 grams carbohydrate = 225
4. Diet 4: Calories = 1700, = 65 grams of protein, fat gram = 50 grams carbohydrate = 245
5. Diet 5: Calories = 1900, = 70 grams of protein, fat gram = 55 grams carbohydrate = 280
6. Diet 6: Calories = 2100, = 80 grams of protein, fat gram = 55 grams carbohydrate = 325
7. Diet 7: Calories = 2300, = 85 grams of protein, fat gram = 65 grams carbohydrate = 350
8. Diet 8: Calories = 2500, = 90 grams of protein, fat gram = 65 grams carbohydrate = 390

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

Kind of Clause :

1.       Time Clause

Common Conjuctions :  When,  Before,  After,  Since,  While,  as,  as long as,  Until, now, soon, early

Function : These  clauses  are  used  to  say  when  something  happens  by referring to a period of  time  or  to  another   event

Example: Hes father died when she was young  , You can do it now  , He will come soon

2.        Conditional Clause

Common Conjuctions : If , Unless

Function : These  clauses  are  used  to talk  about  a  possible  situation  and  It’s  Consequences

Example: They  lose  weight  during  an  illness  they  soon  regain  it  after  wards

3.       Purpose Clause

Common Conjuctions :  In order  to ,  So that ,  In  order  that,

Function : These  clause  are  used to  indicate  the  purpose  of an action

Example: They  had  to take  some  of  this  land  so that  they  could  extend  the  churchyard

4.       Reason Clause

Common Conjuctions : Because,  Since,  as,  given

Function : These  clauses  are  used  to  indicate  the  reason  for  something

Example:   I Couldn’t  feel  anger  against  him  because  I like Him  too much

5.       Result  clause

Common Conjuctions : So…..That

Function: These  clauses  are  used  to  indicate  the  result  of  something

Example:  My  suitcase  had  become  so  demaged  on  the  journey  home  that  the  lid  would  not   stay  claused

6.       Concessive clause

Common Conjunctions:  Although,  though, while

Function:  These  clauses  are  used  to  make  two  statement,  one  of which  contrasts  with  the other  or  makes  it seem  surprising

Example:  I  used  to  read  a lot  although I don’t  get  much  time  for  book’s  now

7.       Place Clause

Common Conjunctions: Where, wherever,  anywhere,  everywhere, here, there, near

Function:  These  clauses  are  used  to  talk  about  the location  or  position  of  something

Example:  He said He was  happy  where  he  was

                    They  sit  here  .  He  will  go  there  .   They  live  near  the  lake

8.       Clause  of  exclamation

Common Conjuctions : What A (an),  how,  such,  so

Function:  Exclamations  are  used  to  express  anger,  shock,  surprise

Example:  What  horrible  news !  How  fast  she  types !  You lucky man !

9.        Clause  of  Manner

Common Conjuctions :  As,  Like,  The way,  well,  quickly,  funnily

Function:   These  clauses are  used  to  talk  about some  one’s  behavior  or  the  way  something  is  clone

Example:    I was  never  allowed  to  do  thing’s  the  way  I  wanted  to do  them

                     You read well

                     He wrote the letter quickly

                     Jack  danced  funnily

10.   Adverb  of  Number

Common Conjunctions:  Once,  Twice,  There  times,  Often

Example:    I did it once.

      He saw it twice.

      We  have  visited  ball  three  times. 

      They  often  quarrel

11.   Adverb  of Degree

Common Conjunctions:  Very, Rather,  Quite

Example:  You are very busy.

                    He is rather crazy.

                    They are quite right

12.    Interrogative Adverbs

Common Conjunctions:  When, Where, Why, How, How far, How long, How often

Example:  When did you buy this? 

                    Where does he live?

                    Why are you laughing?

                    How does he drive?

                    How far did Tom Walk?

                    How long did they sleep?

                    How often do you go shopping?

Adverbial clause

kind of clause	common conjunctions	function	example
time clauses	when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until,til, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "when?"); hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc.[1]	These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event.	Her father died when she was young.
conditional clauses	if, unless	These clauses are used to talk about a possible situation and its consequences.	If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.
purpose clauses	in order to, so that, in order that	These clauses are used to indicate the purpose of an action.	They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard.
reason clauses	because, since, as, given	These clauses are used to indicate the reason for something.	I couldn't feel anger against himbecause I liked him too much.
result clauses	so..that	These clauses are used to indicate the result of something.	My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey home that the lid would not stay closed.
concessive clauses	although, though, while	These clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising.	I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now
place clauses	where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "where?")	These clauses are used to talk about the location or position of something.	He said he was happy where he was.
clauses of manner	as, like, the way	These clauses are used to talk about someone's behaviour or the way something is done.	I was never allowed to do thingsthe way I wanted to do them.
clauses of exclamation	what a(an), how, such, so	Exclamations are used to express anger, fear, shock, surprise etc. They always take an exclamation mark (!).	What horrible news! How fast she types! You lucky man!

Adverbial clause

An adverbial clause is a clause that functions as an adverb. In other words, it contains subject (explicit or implied) and predicate, and it modifies a verb.

• I saw Joe when I went to the store. (explicit subject I)
• He sat quietly in order to appear polite. (implied subject he)

According to Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk, adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts. In those functions they are like adverbial phrases, but in their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often like prepositional phrases (Greenbaum andQuirk,1990):

• We left after the speeches ended. (Is it an adverbial clause, adverbial phrase or preposition phrase?)
• We left after the end of the speeches.(Is it an adverbial clause, adverbial phrase or preposition phrase?)

Contrast adverbial clauses with adverbial phrases, which do not contain a clause.

• I like to fly kites for fun.

Kinds of adverbial clauses

kind of clause	common conjunctions	function	example
time clauses	when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until,til, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "when?"); hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc.[1]	These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event.	Her father died when she was young.
conditional clauses	if, unless	These clauses are used to talk about a possible situation and its consequences.	If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.
purpose clauses	in order to, so that, in order that	These clauses are used to indicate the purpose of an action.	They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard.
reason clauses	because, since, as, given	These clauses are used to indicate the reason for something.	I couldn't feel anger against himbecause I liked him too much.
result clauses	so..that	These clauses are used to indicate the result of something.	My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey home that the lid would not stay closed.
concessive clauses	although, though, while	These clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising.	I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now
place clauses	where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "where?")	These clauses are used to talk about the location or position of something.	He said he was happy where he was.
clauses of manner	as, like, the way	These clauses are used to talk about someone's behaviour or the way something is done.	I was never allowed to do thingsthe way I wanted to do them.
clauses of exclamation	what a(an), how, such, so	Exclamations are used to express anger, fear, shock, surprise etc. They always take an exclamation mark (!).	What horrible news! How fast she types! You lucky man!

2.3 Kepribadian Bangsa Timur

                 Beberapa telah mengkritik istilah 'Timur Tengah' karena keErosentrismeannya. Wilayah ini terletak di timur Eropa barat. Bagi India, dia terletak di barat; bagi Russia dia terletak di selatan. Penggunaan kata 'Tengah' juga telah menyebabkan kebingungan bagi sebagian orang. Sebelum Perang Dunia I, 'Timur Dekat' digunakan Inggris untuk menunjuk ke daerah Balkan dan Kerajaan Ottoman, sedangkan 'Timur Tengah' untuk Persia, Afganistan, dan Asia Tengah, Turki, dan Kaukasus. Sedangkan 'Timur Jauh' menunjuk ke negara-negara 'Asia Timur', seperti Tiongkok, Jepang, Hong Kong, dll.

Dengan hilangnya Kerajaan Ottoman pada 1918, 'Timur Dekat' hampir hilang dalam penggunaan umum, sedangkan 'Timur Tengah' digunakan untuk menunjuk ke negara-negara Islam. Namun penggunaan 'Timur Dekat' tetap digunakan oleh beberapa disiplin akademi, termasuk arkeologi dan sejarah kuno.

Kritikan Erosentrisme juga berhubungan dengan fakta bahwa Timur dan Barat didefinisikan dalam hubungannya dengan garis lintang relatif terhadap Meridian Utama atau Meridian Greenwich. Ini dikarenakan standar kartografi Britania yang diterima luas pada 1884 dalam Konferensi Meridian Internasional.

                            

2.4    Pengertian Kebudayaan :

1. Edward B. Taylor

Kebudayaan merupakan keseluruhan yang kompleks, yang didalamnya terkandung pengetahuan, kepercayaan, kesenian, moral, hukum, adapt istiadat, dan kemampuan-kemampuan lain yang didapat oleh seseorang sebagai anggota masyarakat.

2. M. Jacobs dan B.J. Stern

Kebudayaan mencakup keseluruhan yang meliputi bentuk teknologi social, ideologi, religi, dan kesenian serta benda, yang kesemuanya merupakan warisan social.

3. Koentjaraningrat

Kebudayaan adalah keseluruhan sistem gagasan, tindakan, dan hasil karya manusia dalam rangka kehidupan masyarakat yang dijadikan milik diri manusia dengan relajar.

4. Dr. K. Kupper

Kebudayaan merupakan sistem gagasan yang menjadi pedoman dan pengarah bagi manusia dalam bersikap dan berperilaku, baik secara individu maupun kelompok.

5. William H. Haviland

Kebudayaan adalah seperangkat peraturan dan norma yang dimiliki bersama oleh para anggota masyarakat, yang jika dilaksanakan oleh para anggotanya akan melahirkan perilaku yang dipandang layak dan dapat di tarima ole semua masyarakat.

6. Ki Hajar Dewantara

Kebudayaan berarti buah budi manusia adalah hasil perjuangan manusia terhadap dua pengaruh kuat, yakni zaman dan alam yang merupakan bukti kejayaan hidup manusia untuk mengatasi berbagai rintangan dan kesukaran didalam hidup dan penghidupannya guna mencapai keselamatan dan kebahagiaan yang pada lahirnya bersifat tertib dan damai.

7. Francis Merill

• Pola-pola perilaku yang di hasilkan oleh interaksi social
• Semua perilaku dan semua produk yang dihasilkan oleh sesorang sebagai anggota suatu masyarakat yang di temukan melalui interaksi simbolis.

8. Bounded et.al

Kebudayaan adalah sesuatu yang terbentuk oleh pengembangan dan transmisi dari kepercayaan manusia melalui simbol-simbol tertentu, misalnya simbol bahasa sebagai rangkaian simbol yang digunakan untuk mengalihkan keyakinan budaya di antara para anggota suatu masyarakat. Pesan-pesan tentang kebudayaan yang di harapkan dapat di temukan di dalam media, pemerintahan, intitusi agama, sistem pendidikan dan semacam itu.

9. Mitchell (Dictionary of Soriblogy)

Kebudayaan adalah sebagian perulangan keseluruhan tindakan atau aktivitas manusia dan produk yang dihasilkan manusia yang telah memasyarakat secara sosial dan bukan sekedar di alihkan secara genetikal.

10. Robert H Lowie

Kebudayaan adalah segala sesuatu yang di peroleh individu dari masyarakat, mencakup kepercayaan, adat istiadat, norma-norma artistic, kebiasaan makan, keahlian yang di peroleh bukan dari kreatifitasnya sendiri melainkan merupakan warisan masa lampau yang di dapat melalui pendidikan formal atau informal.

11. Arkeolog R. Seokmono

Kebudayaan adalah seluruh hasil usaha manusia, baik berupa benda ataupun hanya berupa buah pikiran dan dalam penghidupan.

Kesimpulan

Dari berbagai definisi di atas, dapat diperoleh kesimpulan mengenai kebudayaan yaitu sistem pengetahuan yang meliputi sistem ide gagasan yang terdapat di dalam pikiran manusia, sehingga dalam kehidupan sehari-hari kebudayaan itu bersifat abstrak. Sedangkan perwujudan kebudayaan adalah benda-benda yang diciptakan oleh manusia sebagai makhluk yang berbudaya, berupa perilaku dan benda-benda yang bersifat nyata, misalnya pola-pola perilaku, bahasa, peralatan hidup, organisasi social, religi seni dan lain-lain, yang kesemuanya ditujukan untuk membantu manusia dalam melangsungkan kehidupan bermasyarakat.

2.5    Unsur-Unsur Kebudayan :

1. Melville J. Herskovits menyebutkan kebudayaan memiliki 4 unsur pokok, yaitu:

- alat-alat teknologi

- sistem ekonomi

- keluarga

- kekuasaan politik

2. Bronislaw Malinowski mengatakan ada 4 unsur pokok yang meliputi:

- sistem norma sosial yang memungkinkan kerja sama antara para anggota masyarakat untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan alam sekelilingnya

- organisasi ekonomi

- alat-alat dan lembaga-lembaga atau petugas-petugas untuk pendidikan (keluarga adalah lembaga pendidikan utama)

- organisasi kekuatan (politik)

2.6    Wujud Kebudayan :

• Gagasan (Wujud ideal)
  Wujud ideal kebudayaan adalah kebudayaan yang berbentuk kumpulan ide-ide, gagasan, nilai-nilai, norma-norma, peraturan, dan sebagainya yang sifatnya abstrak; tidak dapat diraba atau disentuh. Wujud kebudayaan ini terletak dalam kepala-kepala atau di alam pemikiran warga masyarakat. Jika masyarakat tersebut menyatakan gagasan mereka itu dalam bentuk tulisan, maka lokasi dari kebudayaan ideal itu berada dalam karangan dan buku-buku hasil karya para penulis warga masyarakat tersebut.

• Aktivitas (tindakan)
  Aktivitas adalah wujud kebudayaan sebagai suatu tindakan berpola dari manusia dalam masyarakat itu. Wujud ini sering pula disebut dengan sistem sosial. Sistem sosial ini terdiri dari aktivitas-aktivitas manusia yang saling berinteraksi, mengadakan kontak, serta bergaul dengan manusia lainnya menurut pola-pola tertentu yang berdasarkan adat tata kelakuan. Sifatnya konkret, terjadi dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, dan dapat diamati dan didokumentasikan.

• Artefak (karya)
  Artefak adalah wujud kebudayaan fisik yang berupa hasil dari aktivitas, perbuatan, dan karya semua manusia dalam masyarakat berupa benda-benda atau hal-hal yang dapat diraba, dilihat, dan didokumentasikan. Sifatnya paling konkret diantara ketiga wujud kebudayaan.

“Manusia Dan Penderitaan”

6.1 Pengertian Penderitaan

Penderitaan berasal dari kata derita. Kata derita berasal dari bahasa sansekerta dhra
artinya menahan atau menanggung. Derita artinya menanggung atau merasakan sesuatu
yang tidak menyenangkan. Penderitaan itu dapat lahir atau batin, atau lahir batin.

Penderitaan akan dialami oleh semua orang, hal itu sudah merupakan “risiko” hidup.
Tuhan memberikan kesenangan atau kebahagiaan kepada umatnya, tetapi juga
memberikan penderitaan atau kesedihan yang kadang-kadang bermakna agar manusia
sadar untuk tidak memalingkan dariNya.

6.2 SIKSAAN

          Siksaan dapat diartikan sebagai siksaan badan atau jasmani, dan dapat juga berupa

siksaan jiwa atau rohani. Akibat siksaan yang dialami seseorang, timbullah penderitaan.

Siksaan yang dialami manusia dalam kehidupan sehari-hari banyak terjadi dan banyak
dibaca di berbagai media massa. Bahkan kadang-kadang ditulis di halama pertama
dengan judul huruf besar, dan kadang-kadang disertai gambar si korban.

Kebimbangan di alami oleh seseorang bila ia pada suatu saat dapat menentukan pilihan mana yang akan diambil. Kesepian dialami oleh seseorang merupakan rasa sepi dalam dirinya sendiri atau jiwanya walaupun ia dalam lingkungan orang ramai. Ketakutan merupakan bentuk lain yang dapat menyebabkan seseorang mengalami siksaan batin. Banyak sebab yang menjadikan seseorang merasa ketakutan, antara lain :

1. Claustrophobia dan Agoraphobia
2. Gamang merupakan ketakutan bila seseorang di tempat yang tinggi.
3. Kegelapan merupakan suatu ketakutan seseorang bila ia berada di tempat yang gelap.

4. Kesakitan

5. Kegagalan

6.3 KEKALUTAN MENTAL

Tahapan-tahapan gangguan jiwa adalah :

1. Gangguan kejiwaan nampak dalam gejala-gejala kehidupan si penderita baik

jasmani maupun rohaninya.

2. Usaha mempertahankan diri dengan cara negatif, yaitu mundur atau lari, sehingga

cara bertahan dirinya salah, pada orang yang tidak menderita gangguan kejiwaan

bila menghadapi persoalan, justru lekas memecahkan problemnya, sehingga tidak

menekan perasaannya.

3. Kekalutan merupakan titik patah (mental breakdown) dan yang bersangkutan

mengalami gangguan.

Sebab-sebab timbulnya kekalutan mental, dapat banyak disebutkan antara lain sebagai

berikut :

     1.       Kepribadian yang lemah
2. Terjadinya konflik sosial budaya
3. Cara pematangan batin,

Bentuk frustrasi antara lain :

1. Agresi
2. Regresi
3. fiksasi
4. Proyeksi
5. Identifikasi
6. Narsisme
7. Autisme

Penderita kekalutan mental banyak terdapat dalam lingkungan seperti :

1. Kota-kota besar

2. Anak-anak muda usia

3. Wanita

4. Orang yang tidak berguna

5. Orang yang terlalu mengejar materi

D. PENDERITA DAN PERJUANGAN

Penderitaan adalah bagian kehidupan manusia yang bersifat kodrat. Penderitaan
dikatakan sebagai kodrat manusia, artinya sudah menjadi konsekwensi manusia hidup,
bahwa manusia hidup ditakdirkan bukan hanya untuk bahagia, melainkan juga menderita.
Pembebasan dari penderitaan pada hakekatnya meneruskan kelangsungan hidup. Caranya
ialah berjuang menghadapi tantangan hidup dalam alam lingkungan, masyarakat sekitar,
dengan waspada, dan disertai doa kepada Tuhan supaya terhindar dari bahaya dan
malapetaka.

E. PENDERITAAN, MEDIA MASSA DAN SENIMAN

Berita mengenai penderitaan manusia silih berganti mengisi lembaran koran, layar, tv, pesawat radio, dengan maksud supaya semua orang yang menyaksikan ikut merasakan dari jauh penderitaan manusia.